241 human active and 13 inactive phosphatases in total;
194 phosphatases have substrate data;
--------------------------------
336 protein substrates;
83 non-protein substrates;
1215 dephosphorylation interactions;
--------------------------------
299 KEGG pathways;
876 Reactome pathways;
--------------------------------
last scientific update: 11 Mar, 2019
last maintenance update: 01 Sep, 2023
Mediates transcriptional repression by certain nuclearreceptors (PubMed:20812024) Part of a complex which promoteshistone deacetylation and the formation of repressive chromatinstructures which may impede the access of basal transcriptionfactors Participates in the transcriptional repressor activityproduced by BCL6 Recruited by ZBTB7A to the androgen responseelements/ARE on target genes, negatively regulates androgenreceptor signaling and androgen-induced cell proliferation(PubMed:20812024)
Endocrine therapy is a key treatment strategy to control or eradicate hormone-responsive breast cancer. The most commonly used endocrine therapy agents are selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs, e.g. tamoxifen), estrogen synthesis inhibitors (e.g. aromatase inhibitors (AIs) such as anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane), and selective estrogen receptor down-regulators (SERDs, e.g. fulvestrant). However, resistance to these agents has become a major clinical obstacle. Mechanisms of endocrine resistance include loss of ER-alpha expression, altered expression of coactivators or coregulators that play a critical role in ER-mediated gene transcription, ligand-independent growth factor signaling cascades that activate kinases and ER-phosphorylation, altered availability of active tamoxifen metabolites regulated by drug-metabolizing enzymes, such as CYP2D6, and deregulation of the cell cycle and apoptotic machinery.
The thyroid hormones (THs) are important regulators of growth, development and metabolism. The action of TH is mainly mediated by T3 (3,5,3'-triiodo-L-thyronine). Thyroid hormones, L-thyroxine (T4) and T3 enter the cell through transporter proteins. Although the major form of TH in the blood is T4, it is converted to the more active hormone T3 within cells. T3 binds to nuclear thyroid hormone receptors (TRs), which functions as a ligand-dependent transcription factor and controls the expression of target genes (genomic action). Nongenomic mechanisms of action is initiated at the integrin receptor. The plasma membrane alpha(v)beta(3)-integrin has distinct binding sites for T3 and T4. One binding site binds only T3 and activates the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway. The other binding site binds both T3 and T4 and activates the ERK1/2 MAP kinase pathway.
In tumor cells, genes encoding transcription factors (TFs) are often amplified, deleted, rearranged via chromosomal translocation and inversion, or subjected to point mutations that result in a gain- or loss-of- function. In hematopoietic cancers and solid tumors, the translocations and inversions increase or deregulate transcription of the oncogene. Recurrent chromosome translocations generate novel fusion oncoproteins, which are common in myeloid cancers and soft-tissue sarcomas. The fusion proteins have aberrant transcriptional function compared to their wild-type counterparts. These fusion transcription factors alter expression of target genes, and thereby result in a variety of altered cellular properties that contribute to the tumourigenic process.
Besides signaling as a transmembrane receptor, ligand activated homodimers of ERBB4 JM-A isoforms (ERBB4 JM-A CYT1 and ERBB4 JM-A CYT2) undergo proteolytic cleavage by ADAM17 (TACE) in the juxtamembrane region, resulting in shedding of the extracellular domain and formation of an 80 kDa membrane bound ERBB4 fragment known as ERBB4 m80 (Rio et al. 2000, Cheng et al. 2003). ERBB4 m80 undergoes further proteolytic cleavage, mediated by the gamma-secretase complex, which releases the soluble 80 kDa ERBB4 intracellular domain, known as ERBB4 s80 or E4ICD, into the cytosol (Ni et al. 2001). ERBB4 s80 is able to translocate to the nucleus, promote nuclear translocation of various transcription factors, and act as a transcription co-factor. In neuronal precursors, ERBB4 s80 binds the complex of TAB and NCOR1, helps to move the complex into the nucleus, and is a co-factor of TAB:NCOR1-mediated inhibition of expression of astrocyte differentiation genes GFAP and S100B (Sardi et al. 2006). In mammary cells, ERBB4 s80 recruits STAT5A transcription factor in the cytosol, shuttles it to the nucleus, and acts as the STAT5A co-factor in binding to and promoting transcription from the beta-casein (CSN2) promoter, and may be involved in the regulation of other lactation-related genes (Williams et al. 2004, Muraoka-Cook et al. 2008). ERBB4 s80 was also shown to bind activated estrogen receptor in the nucleus and act as its transcriptional co-factor in promoting transcription of some estrogen-regulated genes, such as progesterone receptor gene NR3C3 and CXCL12 i.e. SDF1 (Zhu et al. 2006). ERBB4s80 may inhibit transcription of telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) by increasing methylation of the TERT gene promoter through an unknown mechanism (Ishibashi et al. 2012).The C-tail of ERBB4 possesses several WW-domain binding motifs (three in CYT1 isoform and two in CYT2 isoform), which enable interaction of ERBB4 with WW-domain containing proteins. ERBB4 s80, through WW-domain binding motifs, interacts with YAP1 transcription factor, a known proto-oncogene, and may be a co-regulator of YAP1-mediated transcription (Komuro et al. 2003, Omerovic et al. 2004). The tumor suppressor WWOX, another WW-domain containing protein, competes with YAP1 in binding to ERBB4 s80 and prevents translocation of ERBB4 s80 to the nucleus (Aqeilan et al. 2005). ERBB4 s80 is also able to translocate to the mitochondrial matrix, presumably when its nuclear translocation is inhibited. Once in the mitochondrion, the BH3 domain of ERBB4, characteristic of BCL2 family members, may enable it to act as a pro-apoptotic factor (Naresh et al. 2006)
REV-ERBA binds DNA elements very similar to those bound by the transcription activator RORA. RORAREV-ERBA bound to DNA and heme recruits the corepressors NCoR and HDAC3 to repress transcription. Thus REV-ERBA and RORA appear to compete to repress or activate genes, repectively
The set of genes regulated by PPAR-alpha is not fully known in humans, however many examples have been found in mice. Genes directly activated by PPAR-alpha contain peroxisome proliferator receptor elements (PPREs) in their promoters and include: 1) genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis (Acox1, Cyp4a, Acadm, Hmgcs2);2) genes involved in fatty acid transport (Cd36, , Slc27a1, Fabp1, Cpt1a, Cpt2);3) genes involved in producing fatty acids and very low density lipoproteins (Me1, Scd1);4) genes encoding apolipoproteins (Apoa1, Apoa2, Apoa5);5) genes involved in triglyceride clearance ( Angptl4);6) genes involved in glycerol metabolism (Gpd1 in mouse);7) genes involved in glucose metabolism (Pdk4);8) genes involved in peroxisome proliferation (Pex11a);9) genes involved in lipid storage (Plin, Adfp).Many other genes are known to be regulated by PPAR-alpha but whether their regulation is direct or indirect remains to be found. These genes include: ACACA, FAS, SREBP1, FADS1, DGAT1, ABCA1, PLTP, ABCB4, UGT2B4, SULT2A1, Pnpla2, Acsl1, Slc27a4, many Acot genes, and others (reviewed in Rakhshandehroo et al. 2010)
NICD1 produced by activation of NOTCH1 in response to Delta and Jagged ligands (DLL/JAG) presented in trans, traffics to the nucleus where it acts as a transcription regulator. In the nucleus, NICD1 displaces the NCOR corepressor complex from RBPJ (CSL). When bound to the co-repressor complex that includes NCOR proteins (NCOR1 and NCOR2) and HDAC histone deacetylases, RBPJ (CSL) represses transcription of NOTCH target genes (Kao et al. 1998, Zhou et al. 2000, Perissi et al. 2004, Perissi et al. 2008). Once the co-repressor complex is displaced, NICD1 recruits MAML (mastermind-like) to RBPJ, while MAML recruits histone acetyltransferases EP300 (p300) and PCAF, resulting in formation of the NOTCH coactivator complex that activates transcription from NOTCH regulatory elements. The minimal functional NOTCH coactivator complex that activates transcription from NOTCH regulatory elements is a heterotrimer composed of NICD, MAML and RBPJ (Fryer et al. 2002, Wallberg et al. 2002, Nam et al. 2006). NOTCH1 coactivator complex is known to activate transcription of HES1 (Jarriault et al. 1995), HES5 (Arnett et al. 2010), HEY genes (Fischer et al. 2004, Leimeister et al. 2000, Maier et al. 2000, Arnett et al. 2010) and MYC (Palomero et al. 2006) and likely regulates transcription of many other genes (Wang et al. 2011). NOTCH1 coactivator complex on any specific regulatory element may involve additional transcriptional regulatory proteins. HES1 binds TLE proteins, forming an evolutionarily conserved transcriptional corepressor involved in regulation of neurogenesis, segmentation and sex determination (Grbavec et al. 1996, Fisher et al. 1996, Paroush et al. 1994). After NOTCH1 coactivator complex is assembled on a NOTCH-responsive promoter, MAML (mastermind-like) recruits CDK8 in complex with cyclin C, triggering phosphorylation of conserved serine residues in TAD and PEST domains of NICD1 by CDK8. Phosphorylated NICD1 is recognized by the E3 ubiquitin ligase FBXW7 which ubiquitinates NICD1, leading to degradation of NICD1 and downregulation of NOTCH1 signaling. FBXW7-mediated ubiquitination and degradation of NOTCH1 depend on C-terminally located PEST domain sequences in NOTCH1 (Fryer et al. 2004, Oberg et al. 2001, Wu et al. 2001). The PEST domain of NOTCH1 and the substrate binding WD40 domain of FBXW7 are frequent targets of mutations in T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia - T-ALL (Welcker and Clurman 2008). NICD1, which normally has a short half-life, can be stabilized by binding to the hypoxia-inducable factor 1-alpha (HIF1A) which accumulates in the nucleus when oxygen levels are low. This results in HIF1A-induced inhibition of cellular differentiation that is NOTCH-dependent (Gustafsson et al. 2005)
Phosphorylated PPARGC1A (PGC-1alpha) does not bind DNA directly but instead interacts with other transcription factors, notably NRF1 and NRF2 (via HCF1). NRF1 and NRF2 together with PPARGC1A activate the transcription of nuclear-encoded, mitochondrially targeted proteins such as TFB2M, TFB1M, and TFAM. PGC-1beta and PPRC appear to act similarly to PGC-1alpha but have not been as well studied. Transcription of PPARGC1A itself is upregulated by CREB1 (in response to calcium), MEF2C/D, ATF2, and PPARGC1A. Transcription of PPARGC1A is repressed by NR1D1 (REV-ERBA)
Transcriptional activity of SMAD2/3:SMAD4 heterotrimer can be inhibited by formation of a complex with SKI or SKIL (SNO), where SKI or SKIL recruit NCOR and possibly other transcriptional repressors to SMAD-binding promoter elements (Sun et al. 1999, Luo et al. 1999, Strochein et al. 1999). Higher levels of phosphorylated SMAD2 and SMAD3, however, may target SKI and SKIL for degradation (Strochein et al. 1999, Sun et al. 1999 PNAS, Bonni et al. 2001) through recruitment of SMURF2 (Bonni et al. 2001) or RNF111 i.e. Arkadia (Levy et al. 2007) ubiquitin ligases to SKI/SKIL by SMAD2/3. Therefore,the ratio of SMAD2/3 and SKI/SKIL determines the outcome: inhibition of SMAD2/3:SMAD4-mediated transcription or degradation of SKI/SKIL. SKI and SKIL are overexpressed in various cancer types and their oncogenic effect is connected with their ability to inhibit signaling by TGF-beta receptor complex. SMAD4 can be monoubiquitinated by a nuclear ubiquitin ligase TRIM33 (Ecto, Ectodermin, Tif1-gamma). Monoubiquitination of SMAD4 disrupts SMAD2/3:SMAD4 heterotrimers and leads to SMAD4 translocation to the cytosol. In the cytosol, SMAD4 can be deubiquitinated by USP9X (FAM), reversing TRIM33-mediated negative regulation (Dupont et al. 2009).Phosphorylation of the linker region of SMAD2 and SMAD3 by CDK8 or CDK9 primes SMAD2/3:SMAD4 complex for ubiquitination by NEDD4L and SMURF ubiquitin ligases. NEDD4L ubiquitinates SMAD2/3 and targets SMAD2/3:SMAD4 heterotrimer for degradation (Gao et al. 2009). SMURF2 monoubiquitinates SMAD2/3, leading to disruption of SMAD2/3:SMAD4 complexes (Tang et al. 2011). Transcriptional repressors TGIF1 and TGIF2 bind SMAD2/3:SMAD4 complexes and inhibit SMAD-mediated transcription by recruitment of histone deacetylase HDAC1 to SMAD-binding promoter elements (Wotton et al. 1999, Melhuish et al. 2001).PARP1 can attach poly ADP-ribosyl chains to SMAD3 and SMAD4 within SMAD2/3:SMAD4 heterotrimers. PARylated SMAD2/3:SMAD4 complexes are unable to bind SMAD-binding DNA elements (SBEs) (Lonn et al. 2010). Phosphorylated SMAD2 and SMAD3 can be dephosphorylated by PPM1A protein phosphatase, leading to dissociation of SMAD2/3 complexes and translocation of unphosphorylated SMAD2/3 to the cytosol (Lin et al. 2006)
As NOTCH1 PEST domain is intracellular, NOTCH1 PEST domain mutants are expected to behave as the wild-type NOTCH1 with respect to ligand binding and proteolytic cleavage mediated activation of signaling. However, once the NICD1 fragment of NOTCH1 is released, PEST domain mutations prolong its half-life and transcriptional activity through interference with FBXW7 (FBW7)-mediated ubiquitination and degradation of NICD1 (Weng et al. 2004, Thompson et al. 2007, O'Neil et al. 2007). All NOTCH1 PEST domain mutants annotated here (NOTCH1 Q2395*, NOTCH1 Q2440*, NOTCH1 P2474Afs*4 and NOTCH1 P2514Rfs*4) either have a truncated PEST domain or lack the PEST domain completely
When found in cis, HD and PEST domain mutations act synergistically, increasing NOTCH1 transcriptional activity up to ~40-fold, compared with up to ~10-fold and up to ~2-fold increase with HD mutations alone and PEST domain mutations alone, respectively (Weng et al. 2004). HD domain mutations enable spontaneous, ligand-independent, proteolytic release of the NICD1 fragment, although mutants remain responsive to ligand binding (Malecki et al. 2006), while PEST domain mutations prolong NICD1 half-life and transcriptional activity through interference with FBXW7 (FBW7)-mediated ubiquitination and degradation (Thompson et al. 2007, O'Neil et al. 2007). NOTCH1 HD+PEST domain mutants annotated here are NOTCH1 L1600P;P2514Rfs*4, NOTCH1 L1600P;Q2440*, NOTCH1 L1600P;Q2395* and NOTCH1 L1574P;P2474Afs*4
Lysine deacetylases (KDACs), historically referred to as histone deacetylases (HDACs), are divided into the Rpd3/Hda1 metal-dependent 'classical HDAC family' (de Ruijter et al. 2003, Verdin et al. 2003) and the unrelated sirtuins (Milne & Denu 2008). Phylogenetic analysis divides human KDACs into four classes (Gregoretti et al. 2004): Class I includes HDAC1, 2, 3 and 8; Class IIa includes HDAC4, 5, 7 and 9; Class IIb includes HDAC6 and 10; Class III are the sirtuins (SIRT1-7); Class IV has one member, HDAC11 (Gao et al. 2002). Class III enzymes use an NAD+ cofactor to perform deacetylation (Milne & Denu 2008, Yang & Seto 2008), the others classes use a metal-dependent mechanism (Gregoretti et al. 2004) to catalyze the hydrolysis of acetyl-L-lysine side chains in histone and non-histone proteins yielding L-lysine and acetate. X-ray crystal structures are available for four human HDACs; these structures have conserved active site residues, suggesting a common catalytic mechanism (Lombardi et al. 2011). They require a single transition metal ion and are typically studied in vitro as Zn2+-containing enzymes, though in vivo HDAC8 exhibits increased activity when substituted with Fe2+ (Gantt et al. 2006). The structurally-related enzyme acetylpolyamine amidohydrolase (APAH) (Leipe & Landsman 1997) exhibits optimal activity with Mn2+, followed closely by Zn2+ (Sakurada et al. 1996).HDACs are often part of multi-protein transcriptional complexes that are recruited to gene promoters, regulating transcription without direct DNA binding. With the exception of HDAC8, all class I members can be catalytic subunits of multiprotein complexes (Yang & Seto 2008). HDAC1 and HDAC2 interact to form the catalytic core of several multisubunit complexes including Sin3, nucleosome remodeling deacetylase (NuRD) and corepressor of REST (CoREST) complexes (Grozinger & Schreiber 2002). HDAC3 is part of the silencing mediator of retinoic acid and thyroid hormone receptor (SMRT) complex or the homologous nuclear receptor corepressor (NCoR) (Li et al. 2000, Wen et al. 2000, Zhang et al. 2002, Yoon et al. 2003, Oberoi et al. 2011) which are involved in a wide range of processes including metabolism, inflammation, and circadian rhythms (Mottis et al. 2013). Class IIa HDACs (HDAC4, -5, -7, and -9) shuttle between the nucleus and cytoplasm (Yang & Seto 2008, Haberland et al. 2009). The nuclear export of class IIa HDACs requires phosphorylation stimulated by calcium or other stimuli. They appear to have been evolutionarily inactivated as enzymes, having acquired a histidine substitution of the tyrosine residue in the active site of the mammalian deacetylase domain (H976 in humans) (Lahm et al. 2007, Schuetz et al. 2008). Instead they function as transcriptional corepressors for the MEF2 family of transcription factors (Yang & Gregoire 2005) .Histones are the primary substrate for most HDACs except HDAC6 which is predominantly cytoplasmic and acts on alpha-tublin (Hubbert et al. 2002, Zhang et al. 2003, Boyault et al. 2007). HDACs also deacetylate proteins such as p53, E2F1, RelA, YY1, TFIIE, BCL6 and TFIIF (Glozak et al. 2005).Histone deacetylases are targeted by structurally diverse compounds known as HDAC inhibitors (HDIs) (Marks et al. 2000). These can induce cytodifferentiation, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of transformed cells (Marks et al. 2000, Bolden et al. 2006). Some HDIs have significant antitumor activity (Marks and Breslow 2007, Ma et al. 2009) and at least two are approved anti-cancer drugs.The coordinates of post-translational modifications represented and described here follow UniProt standard practice whereby coordinates refer to the translated protein before any further processing. Histone literature typically refers to coordinates of the protein after the initiating methionine has been removed. Therefore the coordinates of post-translated residues in the Reactome database and described here are frequently +1 when compared with the literature
Adipogenesis is the process of cell differentiation by which preadipocytes become adipocytes. During this process the preadipocytes cease to proliferate, begin to accumulate lipid droplets and develop morphologic and biochemical characteristics of mature adipocytes such as hormone responsive lipogenenic and lipolytic programs. The most intensively studied model system for adipogenesis is differentiation of the mouse 3T3-L1 preadipocyte cell line by an induction cocktail of containing mitogens (insulin/IGF1), glucocorticoid (dexamethasone), an inducer of cAMP (IBMX), and fetal serum (Cao et al. 1991, reviewed in Farmer 2006). More recently additional cellular models have become available to study adipogenesis that involve almost all stages of development (reviewed in Rosen and MacDougald 2006). In vivo knockout mice lacking putative adipogenic factors have also been extensively studied. Human pathways are traditionally inferred from those discovered in mouse but are now beginning to be validated in cellular models derived from human adipose progenitors (Fischer-Posovszky et al. 2008, Wdziekonski et al. 2011).Adipogenesis is controlled by a cascade of transcription factors (Yeh et al. 1995, reviewed in Farmer 2006, Gesta et al. 2007). One of the first observable events during adipocyte differentiation is a transient increase in expression of the CEBPB (CCAAT/Enhancer Binding Protein Beta, C/EBPB) and CEBPD (C/EBPD) transcription factors (Cao et al. 1991, reviewed in Lane et al. 1999). This occurs prior to the accumulation of lipid droplets. However, it is the subsequent inductions of CEBPA and PPARG that are critical for morphological, biochemical and functional adipocytes.Ectopic expression of CEBPB alone is capable of inducing substantial adipocyte differentiation in fibroblasts while CEBPD has a minimal effect. CEBPB is upregulated in response to intracellular cAMP (possibly via pCREB) and serum mitogens (possibly via Krox20). CEBPD is upregulated in response to glucocorticoids. The exact mechanisms that upregulate the CEBPs are not fully known.CEBPB and CEBPD act directly on the Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor Gamma (PPARG) gene by binding its promoter and activating transcription. CEBPB and CEBPD also directly activate the EBF1 gene (and possibly other EBFs) and KLF5 (Jimenez et al. 2007, Oishi 2005). The EBF1 and KLF5 proteins, in turn bind, and activate the PPARG promoter. Other hormones, such as insulin, affect PPARG expression and other transcription factors, such as ADD1/SREBP1c, bind the PPARG promoter. This is an area of ongoing research.During adipogenesis the PPARG gene is transcribed to yield 2 variants. The adipogenic variant 2 mRNA encodes 30 additional amino acids at the N-terminus compared to the widely expressed variant 1 mRNA.PPARG encodes a type II nuclear hormone receptor (remains in the nucleus in the absence of ligand) that forms a heterodimer with the Retinoid X Receptor Alpha (RXRA). The heterodimer was initially identified as a complex regulating the aP2/FABP4 gene and named ARF6 (Tontonoz et al. 1994).The PPARG:RXRA heterodimer binds a recognition sequence that consists of two hexanucleotide motifs (DR1 motifs) separated by 1 nucleotide. Binding occurs even in the absence of ligands, such as fatty acids, that activate PPARG. In the absence of activating ligands, the PPARG:RXRA complex recruits repressors of transcription such as SMRT/NCoR2, NCoR1, and HDAC3 (Tontonoz and Spiegelman 2008).Each molecule of PPARG can bind 2 molecules of activating ligands. Although, the identity of the endogenous ligands of PPARG is unknown, exogenous activators include fatty acids and the thiazolidinedione class of antidiabetic drugs (reviewed in Berger et al. 2005, Heikkinen et al. 2007, Lemberger et al. 1996). The most potent activators of PPARG in vitro are oxidized derivatives of unsaturated fatty acids.. Upon binding activating ligands PPARG causes a rearrangement of adjacent factors: Corepressors such as SMRT/NCoR2 are lost and coactivators such as TIF2, PRIP, CBP, and p300 are recruited (Tontonoz and Spiegelman). PPARG also binds directly to the TRAP220 subunit of the TRAP/Mediator complex that recruits RNA polymerase II. Thus binding of activating ligand by PPARG causes transcription of PPARG target genes.Targets of PPARG include genes involved in differentiation (PGAR/HFARP, Perilipin, aP2/FABP4, CEBPA), fatty acid transport (LPL, FAT/CD36), carbohydrate metabolism (PEPCK-C, AQP7, GK, GLUT4 (SLC2A4)), and energy homeostasis (LEPTIN and ADIPONECTIN) (Perera et al. 2006).Within 10 days of differentiation CEBPB and CEBPD are no longer located at the PPARG promoter. Instead CEBPA is present. EBF1 and PPARG bind the CEBPA promoter and activate transcription of CEBPA, one of the key transcription factors in adipogenesis. A current hypothesis posits a self-reinforcing loop that maintains PPARG expression and the differentiated state: PPARG activates CEBPA and CEBPA activates PPARG. Additionally EBF1 (and possibly other EBFs) activates CEBPA, CEBPA activates EBF1, and EBF1 activates PPARG
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-alpha) is the major regulator of fatty acid oxidation in the liver. PPARalpha is also the target of fibrate drugs used to treat abnormal plasma lipid levels. PPAR-alpha is a type II nuclear receptor (its subcellular location does not depend on ligand binding). PPAR-alpha forms heterodimers with Retinoid X receptor alpha (RXR-alpha), another type II nuclear receptor. PPAR-alpha is activated by binding fatty acid ligands, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids having 18-22 carbon groups and 2-6 double bonds. The PPAR-alpha:RXR-alpha heterodimer binds peroxisome proliferator receptor elements (PPREs) in and around target genes. Binding of fatty acids and synthetic ligands causes a conformational change in PPAR-alpha such that it releases the corepressors and binds coactivators (CBP-SRC-HAT complex, ASC complex, and TRAP-Mediator complex) which initiate transcription of the target genes.Target genes of PPAR-alpha participate in fatty acid transport, fatty acid oxidation, triglyceride clearance, lipoprotein production, and cholesterol homeostasis
At the center of the mammalian circadian clock is a negative transcription/translation-based feedback loop: The BMAL1:CLOCK/NPAS2 (ARNTL:CLOCK/NPAS2) heterodimer transactivates CRY and PER genes by binding E-box elements in their promoters; the CRY and PER proteins then inhibit transactivation by BMAL1:CLOCK/NPAS2. BMAL1:CLOCK/NPAS2 activates transcription of CRY, PER, and several other genes in the morning. Levels of PER and CRY proteins rise during the day and inhibit expression of CRY, PER, and other BMAL1:CLOCK/NPAS2-activated genes in the afternoon and evening. During the night CRY and PER proteins are targeted for degradation by phosphorylation and polyubiquitination, allowing the cycle to commence again in the morning. Transcription of the BMAL1 (ARNTL) gene is controlled by ROR-alpha and REV-ERBA (NR1D1), both of which are targets of BMAL1:CLOCK/NPAS2 in mice and both of which compete for the same element (RORE) in the BMAL1 promoter. ROR-alpha (RORA) activates transcription of BMAL1; REV-ERBA represses transcription of BMAL1. This mutual control forms a secondary, reinforcing loop of the circadian clock. REV-ERBA shows strong circadian rhythmicity and confers circadian expression on BMAL1. BMAL1 can form heterodimers with either CLOCK or NPAS2, which act redundantly but show different tissue specificity. The BMAL1:CLOCK and BMAL1:NPAS2 heterodimers activate a set of genes that possess E-box elements (consensus CACGTG) in their promoters. This confers circadian expression on the genes. The PER genes (PER1, PER2, PER3) and CRY genes (CRY1, CRY2) are among those activated by BMAL1:CLOCK and BMAL1:NPAS2. PER and CRY mRNA accumulates during the morning and the proteins accumulate during the afternoon. PER and CRY proteins form complexes in the cytosol and these are bound by either CSNK1D or CSNK1E kinases which phosphorylate PER and CRY. The phosphorylated PER:CRY:kinase complex is translocated into the nucleus due to the nuclear localization signal of PER and CRY. Within the nucleus the PER:CRY complexes bind BMAL1:CLOCK and BMAL1:NPAS2, inhibiting their transactivation activity and their phosphorylation. This reduces expression of the target genes of BMAL1:CLOCK and BMAL1:NPAS2 during the afternoon and evening. PER:CRY complexes also traffic out of the nucleus into the cytosol due to the nuclear export signal of PER. During the night PER:CRY complexes are polyubiquitinated and degraded, allowing the cycle to begin again. Phosphorylated PER is bound by Beta-TrCP1, a cytosolic F-box type component of some SCF E3 ubiquitin ligases. CRY is bound by FBXL3, a nucleoplasmic F-box type component of some SCF E3 ubiquitin ligases. Phosphorylation of CRY1 by Adenosine monophosphate-activated kinase (AMPK) enhances degradation of CRY1. PER and CRY are subsequently polyubiquitinated and proteolyzed by the 26S proteasome.The circadian clock is cell-autonomous and some, but not all cells of the body exhibit circadian rhythms in metabolism, cell division, and gene transcription. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus is the major clock in the body and receives its major input from light (via retinal neurons) and a minor input from nutrient intake. The SCN and other brain tissues determine waking and feeding cycles and influence the clocks in other tissues by hormone secretion and nervous stimulation. Independently of the SCN, other tissues such as liver receive inputs from signals from the brain and from nutrients
In mammals, anterior Hox genes may be defined as paralog groups 1 to 4 (Natale et al. 2011), which are involved in development of the hindbrain through sequential expression in the rhombomeres, transient segments of the neural tube that form during development of the hindbrain (reviewed in Alexander et al. 2009, Soshnikova and Duboule 2009, Tumpel et al. 2009, Mallo et al. 2010, Andrey and Duboule 2014). Hox gene activation during mammalian development has been most thoroughly studied in mouse embryos and the results have been extended to human development by in vitro experiments with human embryonal carcinoma cells and human embryonic stem cells.Expression of a typical anterior Hox gene has an anterior boundary located at the junction between two rhombomeres and continues caudally to regulate segmentation and segmental fate in ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Anterior boundaries of expression of successive Hox paralog groups are generally separated from each other by 2 rhombomeres. For example, HOXB2 is expressed in rhombomere 3 (r3) and caudally while HOXB3 is expressed in r5 and caudally. Exceptions exist, however, as HOXA1, HOXA2, and HOXB1 do not follow the rule and HOXD1 and HOXC4 are not expressed in rhombomeres. Hox genes within a Hox cluster are expressed colinearly: the gene at the 3' end of the cluster is expressed earliest, and hence most anteriorly, then genes 5' are activated sequentially in the same order as they occur in the cluster. Activation of expression occurs epigenetically by loss of polycomb repressive complexes and change of bivalent chromatin to active chromatin through, in part, the actions of trithorax family proteins (reviewed in Soshnikova and Duboule 2009). Hox gene expression initiates in the posterior primitive streak that will contribute to extraembryonic mesoderm. Expression then extends anteriorly into the cells that will become the embryo, where expression is first observed in presumptive lateral plate mesoderm and is transmitted to both paraxial mesoderm and neurectoderm formed by gastrulation along the primitive streak (reviewed in Deschamps et al. 1999, Casaca et al. 2014).Prior to establishment of the rhombomeres, expression of HOXA1 and HOXB1 is initiated near the future site of r3 and caudally by a gradient of retinoic acid (RA). (Mechanisms of retinoic acid signaling are reviewed in Cunningham and Duester 2015.) The RA is generated by the ALDH1A2 (RALDH2) enzyme located in somites flanking the caudal hindbrain and degraded by CYP26 enzymes expressed initially in anterior neural ectoderm of the early gastrula and then throughout most of the hindbrain (reviewed in White and Schilling 2008). HOXA1 with PBX1,2 and MEIS2 directly activate transcription of ALDH1A2 to maintain retinoic acid synthesis in the somitic mesoderm (Vitobello et al. 2011). Differentiation of embryonal carcinoma cells and embryonic stem cells in response to retinoic acid is used to model the process of differentiation in vitro (reviewed in Soprano et al. 2007, Gudas et al. 2013).HOXA1 appears to set the anterior limit of HOXB1 expression (Barrow et al. 2000). HOXB1 initiates expression of EGR2 (KROX20) in presumptive r3. EGR2 then activates HOXA2 expression in r3 and r5 while HOXB1, together with PBX1 and MEIS:PKNOX1 (MEIS:PREP), activates expression of HOXA2 in r4 and caudal rhombomeres. AP-2 transcription factors maintain expression of HOXA2 in neural crest cells (Maconochie et al. 1999). HOXB1 also activates expression of HOXB2 in r3 and caudal rhombomeres. EGR2 negatively regulates HOXB1 so that by the time rhombomeres appear, HOXB1 is restricted to r4 and HOXA1 is no longer detectable (Barrow et al. 2000). EGR2 and MAFB (Kreisler) then activate HOXA3 and HOXB3 in r5 and caudal rhombomeres. Retinoic acid activates HOXA4, HOXB4, and HOXD4 in r7, the final rhombomere. HOX proteins, in turn, activate expression of genes in combination with other factors, notably members of the TALE family of transcription factors (PBX, PREP, and MEIS, reviewed in Schulte and Frank 2014, Rezsohazy et al. 2015). HOX proteins also participate in non-transcriptional interactions (reviewed in Rezsohazy 2014). In zebrafish, Xenopus, and chicken factors such as Meis3, Fgf3, Fgf8, and vHNF regulate anterior hox genes (reviewed in Schulte and Frank 2014), however less is known about the roles of homologous factors in mammals. Mutations in HOXA1 in humans have been observed to cause developmental abnormalities located mostly in the head and neck region (Tischfield et al. 2005, Bosley et al. 2008). A missense mutation in HOXA2 causes microtia, hearing impairment, and partially cleft palate (Alasti et al. 2008). A missense mutation in HOXB1 causes a similar phenotype to the Hoxb1 null mutation in mice: bilateral facial palsy, hearing loss, and strabismus (improper alignment of the eyes) (Webb et al. 2012)
Affinity Capture-Western, Reconstituted Complex, Two-hybrid, anti bait coimmunoprecipitation, anti tag coimmunoprecipitation, nuclear magnetic resonance, two hybrid
association, direct interaction, physical, physical association
Affinity Capture-Western, Reconstituted Complex, Two-hybrid, anti bait coimmunoprecipitation, anti tag coimmunoprecipitation, nuclear magnetic resonance, two hybrid
association, direct interaction, physical, physical association
Affinity Capture-Western, Reconstituted Complex, Two-hybrid, anti bait coimmunoprecipitation, anti tag coimmunoprecipitation, nuclear magnetic resonance, two hybrid
association, direct interaction, physical, physical association